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<TITLE>Logistics, mine for useful nuggets</TITLE>
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<P><FONT SIZE=2>I fond the following two pages in my general rooting about the net for game-usable junk, a long while ago. They seem to be snippits from historical and modern records. The purpose of all the gathered data seems to have been used to model ancient trade routes and economics.</FONT></P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>A little data mining and extrapolation may pull out reasonable realistic data for any future game work.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2><A HREF="http://www.ciolek.com/OWTRAD/notebook.html" TARGET="_blank">http://www.ciolek.com/OWTRAD/notebook.html</A></FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Pages are noted as being offline at present for reoganization, which may provide even more data later on, but my saved copies presented here in their gory details. :}</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Logistics data</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Supply: [food, fodder, water, fuel, spare parts, noncomestibles]</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * People on foot</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "A minimum ration for each adult on a military expedition would be 3lb [1.35 kg - tmc] of grain per day or its nutritional equivalent and at least 2 qt. [0.5 gallon or 2.27 l - tmc] of water per day." (Engels 1978:17).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Walking [in desert conditions] during the day you may get 16 km (10 miles) to one gallon [4.54 l - tmc] of water. At night, you could possibly double that distance, somce you will dehydrate less." (Lewis 1997:142)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "In summer in the Sahara, you will need to drink up to 6 litres/10 pints of fluids daily." (Lewis 1997:131)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "The caloric consumption at normal [walking - tmc] speed is less than 100 calories per mile [1609 m - tmc], or the equivalent of a 35-mile [56.3 km - tmc] walk for the weight loss of one pound." (Fruin 1971:27-28)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Human energy consumption for climbing stairs [within the range 27-40 degrees - tmc] is about ten to fifteen times the energy needed for walking the equivalent horizontal distance." (Fruin 1971:30)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Human energy consumption for [descending] stairs [within the range 27-40 degrees] is about [one third greater then] the energy needed for walking the equivalent horizontal distance." (Fruin 1971:30)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "The normal water ration for troops in a desert is 10 liters per day (about 9 qt.)." (Engels 1978:125)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "In the Sahara humidity is a constant 40 percent, but here [in the Libyan desert] it drops to 18 percent. And life evaporates like a haze. Beduin tribesmen, travellers and colonial officials all teach that a man can last for nineteen hours without water. After twenty hours his eyes flood with light, and it is the beginning of the end: thirst's onslaught is devastating." (Saint-Exupery 1995:85)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o A few rules of thumb: (a) if fodder for pack animals and water are available, but no grain - a group of travelling people (such as an army) can carry a 10-day grain ration; (b) if water is available, but no fodder or grain - a group can carry a 7-day grain ration; (b) if no water, fodder or grain is available - a group can carry a 4-day grain ration. (Engels 1978: 20-21) Moral: "An army whose supplies are carried by animals and men cannot advance through desert where neither grain, fodder or water is available for more than four days. If the army were fed full rations, it could not advance for more than two full days without incurring heavy casualties." (Engels 1978: 22)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o It is impossible to carry supplies (food) overland for more than nine (9) days because pack animals and the personnel would have consumed all the supplies they could carry by this time (Engels 1978: 112).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Starting on a journey across Taklamakan desert in Sep 1993 Blackmore calculated on 5 liters of water/person/day (2L for drinking, 2L for communal cooking and sweet tea, 1L spare in backpacks) + 40L water/camel/3 days for the 30 camels and 15 person strong party 3.5 week crossing from Markit to Mazartagh. This gave a total of 1,800 liters, without wastage and small "margin for safety with temperatures rising into the hundreds [Farenheit]" (Blackmore 1995:51) [3.5 weeks = 24 days. People requirements = 24days*15people*5liters = 1800L. Camels (8days*30camels*40liters =9600L) were to be watered from wells dug enroute - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o A 1st c. CE memorial from certain Yen Yew states: "If we reckon the consumption per man for three hundred days at eighteen bushels [approx 360 litres - J.Hill] of dried rice, such a weight will require oxen for the transport." This suggest a consumption rate of 1.2L of rice per person/day [360L/300 days. Compare these figures with 1.35 kg of wheat per person/day as calculated by Engels - tmc].</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> The quote and data are taken from a translation (<A HREF="http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/CA/texts/hantxt1.html#memorial" TARGET="_blank">http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/CA/texts/hantxt1.html#memorial</A>) of an unidentified chapter of the 'Han shu' by A. Wylie in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vols. III (1874), pp. 401-452, V (1876), pp. 41-80, X (1881), pp. 20-73, and XI (1882), pp. 83-115.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> John Hill (wynhill@tpg.com.au) writes Sun, 28 Jan 2001 "Memorial from Yen Yew quoted (which advises against making a campaign against the Hsiung nu) probably dates to the events of 11 AD and come from Chap. 94 of the Han shu, but I am not sure. [...] We know that the Han "bushel" ('shih' or 'hu') = 19.968 litres (see Records of the han Administration by Michael Loewe, Vol. 1. Cambridge 1967, p. 161)."</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * People on animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * Animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "To be fed adequately, horses and mules ... need in addition of their usual forage (10 lb of straw or chaff), a ration of 10 lb. of grain per day and... 8 [imperial] gal. [36.3L - tmc] of water per day " (Engels 1978:18).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Hot weather and hard work will almost double ordinary water requirements [for cavalry horses, to a level of 15 gal. [68.1L - tmc] of water per day]." (Engels 1978:127).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o The ratio between the [horse's] consumption rate and his carrying capacity in pounds remains approximately the same (about 1:10), no matter what the size of the animal." (Engels 1978:128). [this means that within 10 days the animal will consume all grain it is able to carry, providing it has an external supply of fodder and water - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o unspecified camel needs (a) 10 lb of grain and 25 lb of straw per day; or (b) 8 lb of grain, 30 lb of straw; or (c) 6 lb of grain, 40-50 lb of straw; or (d) 4 lb grain, 50-60 lb of straw; or (e) "if no grain can be given; 70 lb of straw will be needed." (Engels 1978:129)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o unspecified camel needs "about 10 gal. [45.4 - tmc] of water per day - although if the animal has gone three or four days without water, he might require 20 gal.[90.8 l - tmc] at one time." (Engels 1978:18)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o dromedary camel "can go 5-7 days with little or no food and water, and can lose a quarter of its body weight without impairing its normal functions. These days, camels rely on man for their preferred food of dates, grass and grains such as wheat and oats, but a working camel travelling across an area where food is scarce can easily survive on thorny scrub or whatever it can find - bones, seeds, dried leaves, or even its owner's tent! [...] Camels need very little water if their regular diet contains good, moisture-rich pasture. Although camels can withstand severe dehydration, a large animal can drink as much as 100 litres/21 gallons in ten minutes. Such an amount would kill another mammal, but the camel's unique metabolism enables the animal to store the water in its bloodstream." (ArabNet 1996)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o bactrian camel "can tolerate extremely hot weather. They can suffer thirst, going without watering for 7-8 days, even under the sun, and may lose as much as 221 lbs of water which is about 22-25% of their body weight." (Cheng 1984)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o An elephant needs 500 lb [225 kg - tmc] of grain and 60 gal. [272.4 l - tmc] of water per day (Engels 1978:111)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Yaks can graze on the alpine grasslands in the summer and during winter on the shrubs in deep snow in rigorous temperatures." (Cheng 1984) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * beasts of burden</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * carts & draft animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o A 1st c. CE memorial from certain Yen Yew states: "If we reckon the consumption per man for three hundred days at eighteen bushels of dried rice, such a weight will require oxen for the transport; and then the food for the oxen must also be provided, which will be an additional weight of twenty bushels [approx 400 litres - J.Hill]. The Hoo land is for the most part sandy and salt, with scarcity of water and herbage, as we know from past experience; and before the army has been out a hundred days the oxen will all die out, while the quantity of provisions still left will be more than the men can carry." This suggest a consumption rate of (a) 1.33L [400L/300 days - tmc] of rice per oxen/day, in addition to herbage; (b) 4L [400L/100 days - tmc] of rice per oxen/day when fodder is unavailable.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> The quote and data are taken from a translation (<A HREF="http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/CA/texts/hantxt1.html#memorial" TARGET="_blank">http://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/CA/texts/hantxt1.html#memorial</A>) of an unidentified chapter of the 'Han shu' by A. Wylie in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vols. III (1874), pp. 401-452, V (1876), pp. 41-80, X (1881), pp. 20-73, and XI (1882), pp. 83-115.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> John Hill (wynhill@tpg.com.au) writes Sun, 28 Jan 2001 "Memorial from Yen Yew quoted (which advises against making a campaign against the Hsiung nu) probably dates to the events of 11 AD and come from Chap. 94 of the Han shu, but I am not sure. [...] We know that the Han "bushel" ('shih' or 'hu') = 19.968 litres (see Records of the han Administration by Michael Loewe, Vol. 1. Cambridge 1967, p. 161)." </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * boats and ships</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * ratio of people to animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "In the Roman imperial army, one pack animal carried the tent, hand mills, kettles, and tool kits for each eight-man contubernium. Additional animals transported the catapult carried by each legion and the effects of the military tribunes, legate, and centurions... [which gave the figure] of about one animal per seven combatants." (Engels 1978:17)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "A caravan might consisted of five to six thousands camels..." (Braudel 1995:63).</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "In 1602 a Portuguese Jesuit, Benedict de Goes [...] set off from Lahore [in Pakistan] for China 9where he died), attaching himself to a caravan of five hundred merchants, and passed through a part of eastern Afghanistan which he calls 'Capherstam' [Nuristan, NE Afghanistan." (Newby 1974:88)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1935 the Deutsche Hindu Kush Expedition "was certainly big. Its members travelled with forty mules specially imported for the job, fifteen mule drivers, three Afghan officers and sixteen soldiers. It worked methodically, establishing supply depots for itself en route." (Newby 1974:88).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o An explorers' group in Afghanistan in summer 1956 consisted of 2 explorers on feet and 3 local (Tajik) pack-horse drivers (Newby 1974:104). [ratio 3 horses: 5 walkers or 0.6 horse: 1 person - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Caravans were made up of people and pack animals traveling in large groups; up to 20,000 people and 300,000 animals has been recorded in a general caravan made up of merchants and pilgrims traveling to Mecca." (Anonymous 1997) [an example of improbable data: assuming that in a desert conditions only 200 animals could be watered simultaneously and that each beast took only 1 minute to arrive to the source of water, drink it and depart (a most impressive feat of speed, and traffic coordination), the whole process would last 1500 minutes or 25 hrs - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1895 Sven Hedin, 3 camel-handlers and eight Bactrian camels embarked on journey across Taklamakan desert. (Blackmore 1995:48,92). [ratio 2 camels:1 person - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1993 nine explorers, six camel-handlers and 30 male Bactrian camels embarked on a multi-stage (resupplies of water, food and fodder) 780 miles long journey across Taklamakan desert. (Blackmore 1995:57). [ratio 2 camels:1 person - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1900 5 people (2 explorers + 3 servants) travelled with 16 ponies from Bandipur@IN to Kashgar@CN (Walker 1995:70) [ratio 3.2 ponies:1 person - tmc] </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Loading capacity data</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>[average, max, extreme situations, seasonal variations, effect of numbers, need for daily and intermittent rest]</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * people</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o A soldier can carry about 80 lb [36 kg - tmc] for extended distances without injuring his health (Engels 1978:17,21)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Afghan butter carriers in Nuristan [NE Afghanistan] in 1956 carried loads (in a hand-made backpack) about 64 pounds [28.8 kg - tmc] for 8.5 days across a rugged mountainous terrain from Pushal, via Semenek Pass to Chitral, a distance of some 150 miles [approx 240 km, average speed 28.4 km/day - tmc] (Newby 1974:200,217)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Porter (in Africa) can carry a 60lb [27 kg -tmc] load 10-15 miles a day [16-24 km - tmc] (Harms 1981:48-49, cited in Oliver 2000:158) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * beasts of burden</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "The average pack animal [horse/mule/camel] - in the Macedonian baggage train could carry 250 lb [112.5 kg]." (Engels 1978:15)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o dromedary camel "can carry as much as 450kg/990lbs, but a usual and more comfortable cargo weight is 150kgs/330lbs. It is usual for a camel to work as a beast of burden for only six to eight months of the year; the remainder of the time it needs to rest and recuperate." (ArabNet 1996)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Arvana [Turkmenistan] camel "In an 8-10 hour working day Arvana camels can carry packs weighing 200-300 kg for a distance of 30-35 km." (Dmitriez and Ernst 1989)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o bactrian camel "A load of 330 lbs [148.5 kg] can be carried for 7-8 hours a day at the ordinary speed of 25-35 km per day." (Cheng 1984)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Unspecified camel - "can carry 300 lb [135 kg] for extended distances ... these figures are net weights and exclude the weight of the pack saddle itself, which weighted about 50 lb. [22.5 kg]" (Engels 1978:14-15)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Unspecified camel - can carry six hundredweight or 300 kg (Braudel 1995:63) [A possible example of misinformation. A camel can lift that weight - the question is how far and for how long can it carry it - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Unspecified camel - along the Silk Road luxury "items went overland by way of caravan which consisted of anywhere to 100 to 1000 camels, each loaded with roughly 500 pounds of goods." (Gonzalez nd).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Camels - loading capacity: An example of a traveller in Sudan in the late 1920s. 1 European rider on a racing camel + 6 camels in his personal train [c1 105kg (& 70kg cook) + c2 55kg of cook boxes (& 70kg servant) + c3 100kg + c4 80kg + c5 140 kg (2x 50l water) + c6 220kg (grain for other camels)] + a man (on a camel?) to look after the train. To tie 6 pack camels with the above luggage one needs 65 m of good rope, excluding that for tying and leading the camels (Wilson, R.T. 1984:151) [total load (exl. people = 700kg (or 117kg/camel), initially, but with the gradual reduction in weight of grain and water. The heaviest-loaded beasts walk last in the train - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Bishari camel (Sudan) as a riding animal - loading capacity: In the 1930s, British Camel Corps in Sudan. Speed 7-8 km hr, carried a soldier, water for the soldier for 4 days, food for the soldier for 3 weeks; cooking gear, blankets, overcoat; 200 rounds of ammunition and 6-day's grain for the camel- a total load of approx 180 kg. "With this load they were expected to travel up to 650 kms to the general area of operations and then average anything up to 65 km per night for five nights in seek and destroy missions." (Wilson, R.T. 1984:163)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o camels as pack animals - loading capacity: Speed 2-3 kms.hr. The max load depends on time and place. Sudan in the 1920 - approx 165kg; Sudan, Bishari Camel Corps camels - approx 180 kg; Sudan exploration groups - - apprxo 220kg and carrying the weight for 1000 km or more; British Army in India - 200kg; Indian Army in India - 180 kg; French Army in Algeria - 120-150 kg. (Wilson, R.T. 1984:163-165). (Wilson, R.T. 1984:163)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Sudan in the 1970s "most of the camels still used for transport [...] regularly carry in excess of 300kg and carrying this load are to achieve distances 20-25 km per day over extended periods... [and they have seen to accomplish] the 160km journey in 5 or 6 days." (Wilson, R.T. 1984:166)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Ethiopia camels move salt from Danakil Depression to the Tigre Higlands the loads are low "90 kg on average, but the animals cover the 160 km journey in 4 days and gain an altitude of about 2800 m in the process." (Wilson, R.T. 1984:166)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "In Mali camels carrying salt from the northern desert to Timbuctoo are loaded with 4-6 blocks of 35kg each." (Wilson, R.T. 1984:166) [load 140-210 kg - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o The average load of a camel is 250kg, and that of a donkey 50kg - (Wilson, R.T. 1984:166-167)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Horse/mule - "can carry 200 lb [90 kg] for extended distances ... these figures are net weights and exclude the weight of the pack saddle itself, which weighted about 50 lb. [22.5 kg]" (Engels 1978:14-15)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Yak "may travel 20-30 km per day with a load of 130 lbs. [58.5 kg] on the high, cold, steep mountainous paths." (Cheng 1984)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Llamas "as beast of burden ... they could carry a hundredweight [112 lb or 50.8 kg] and travel 15 miles [24.1 km] a day." (Thomas 1995:238). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * carts & draft animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o On Roman roads "There were major and minor post stations every ten or twelve miles [16.1-19.3 km] along the main roads. Each station kept horses, vets, ostlers, surgeons, cartwrights, carriages and wagons. The upkeep was maintained by provincial taxes." (Thomas 1995:235)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "By the twelfth century, a four wheeled 'caretta', capable of carying heavy loads, very slowly, was in being." (Thomas 1995:237)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "One [bactrian] camel can pull a load of 1650 lbs [742 kg - tmc] or 3300 lbs [1485 kg - tmc] by two, per day at normal walking speed [3.1-4.4 km/hr (8 hrs day), 3.6-5 km/hr (7 hrs day) - tmc]." (Cheng 1984)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Ox carts... can only achieve a speed of 2 mph and their [oxen - tmc] hooves are unsuitable for travelling long distances." (Engels 1978:15)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "The average 2-oxen cart can pull 1,000 to 1200 lb. [450-540 kg - tmc] (at 2 mph.)" (Engels 1978:15)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1683, during King Sobieski's war against Turkey "Eight thousand wagons with food for six months [for 26,000 men - tmc] rumbled on [through Bohemia] at fifteen miles a day." (Davies 1982:481) [average speed = 24.2 km/day. Rations: 180*26,000 = 4,680,000 daily rations. This means that each wagon carried 585 daily rations - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Quatermasters in Napoleonic army "took fifty wagons to move forage for some 2,500 horses for two days." [= 1 wagon of forage per 100 horses/day - tmc] (Elting 1997: 554) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * boats & ships</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Metric conversion: short tons to metric tons:</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>1 metric ton = 2204.6 pounds</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 metric ton = 1000 kilograms</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 metric ton = 1.1023 short tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 metric ton = 0.98421 long tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 short ton = 2000 pounds</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 short ton = 907.2 kilograms</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 short ton = 0.9072 metric tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 short ton = 0.8929 long tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 long ton = 2240 pounds</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 long ton = 1016 kilograms</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 long ton = 1.016 metric tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1 long ton = 1.12 short tons</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Conversion Factors </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Multiply By To Obtain</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Tons, short 0.9072 Metric tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Tons, long 1.01605 Metric tons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Gallons 3.78543 Liters</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Bushels 0.0352 Cubic meters</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Cubic Yards 0.765 Cubic meters </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Src: Navigation Data Center, The US Army Corps of Engineers. 2000. Metric Conversion. <A HREF="http://www.wrsc.usace.army.mil/ndc/metric.htm" TARGET="_blank">http://www.wrsc.usace.army.mil/ndc/metric.htm</A>.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "'Ton' as used in the Tariff has reference to a short ton of 2,000 lbs. All cargo will be subject to weight or measurement, whichever results in higher charges, with a measure ton consisting of 40 cubic feet." Src: Port Manatee. ?1999. Terminal Tariff No. 3: Rates, Rules And Regulations Governing Port Manatee. <A HREF="http://www.portmanatee.com/TariffC.html" TARGET="_blank">http://www.portmanatee.com/TariffC.html</A></FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Therefore, in the notes below</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> I assume the following correspondence of volumes: 1 ton burden (a term used by Lionel Casson) = 1 freight ton = 1 shipping ton = 1 measure ton = 40 cubic feet</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> and I assume the following volume / weight correspondence: 1 ton burden (measure of volume) = 1 short ton (measure of weight) = 2000 pounds = 0.9072 metric ton</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o A man paddling in a dug-out canoe (in Africa) can transport an approximately 180 lb [81kg -tmc] load 40-50 miles a day [64-80 km - tmc] while travelling downstream, and 25-35 miles a day [40-56 km - tmc] when travelling against the river's current (Harms 1981:48-49, cited in Oliver 2000:158)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Greece, Classical - "Vessels of 100 to 150 tons burden [90-135 metric tons - tmc] were common, and the biggest could hold as much as 400." (Casson 1984:25)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "The largest merchant ships of the fifth century B.C. could transport 10,000 talents [approx. 262 metric tons - tmc]." (Engels 1978:26)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o At the times of Alexander the Great "The average merchant ship could carry 140 tons [126 metric tons - tmc]." (Engels 1978:112)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - "Ships, up to 1000 tons [tons burden - tmc], might carry some 600 persons, but ordinary freighters were probably only about 200 tons or less." (Scullard 1970:343)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Venice, 1500 CE. - The city needed only 30-40 ships for her inter-regional trade. "The average size was about 250 tons burden [225 metric tons - tmc], the largest was not over 440 [396 metric tons - tmc]." (Lane 1934:107 cited in Casson 1984:93)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Meditteranean, 13th c. there were "Venetian galleys, as well as round ships carrying 100 to 250 tons [90-225 metric tons - tmc] of cargo." (Curtin 1984:120)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Persian Gulf, 13th c. "The dhows that sailed the Indian Ocean carried 100-400 tons [90-360 metric tons - tmc] of cargo. A large one could carry up to seventy war horses and a hundred fighting men along with other crew and passengers." (Curtin 1984:120)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Europe, 16th c. - "The average for western craft in the 16th century was probably no more than 75 [tons burden] [67.5 metric tons - tmc]." (Casson 1984:25)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Europe, mid-17th c. - In Gdansk, in 1641, 964 [55%] of 1,741 ships which visited the city had a capacity of less then 50 lasts (about 115 metric tons); 674 [39%] had a capacity 50-150 lasts (115-345 metric tons); 103 [6%] of them carried over 150 lasts (345 metric tons and more) (Davies 1982:260).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In the 1660s the Siamese ships trading between Bangkok and Canton had around 300 metric tons capacity (Curtin 1984:170)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In the mid-18th c., on a river route from Tsaritsyn (mod. Volgograd, former Stalingrad) to Astrakhan "goods were put on river boats capable of hauling about 45 tons [40 metric tons - tmc] with a crew of fifteen to twenty." (Curtin 1984:191)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Europe, late-18th c. - In Poland, in 1796, the following river-craft was in use (Davies 1982:265).</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Name Crew Max Grain Cargo </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>in metric tons*</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>---------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Szkuta (Raft) 20 96.4</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Dubas (Barge) 14 67.7</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Byk (Flatboat) 12 50.7</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Lyzwa (Pontoon) 10 50.7</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Koza (small Raft) 10 42.3</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Galar (Lighter) 8 33.8</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Berlinka (skiff) 6 25.4</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>---------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>* calculated from Polish bushels (1 korzec = 114 litres of rye or, roughly 84.6 kg)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Src: (Davies 1982:265).</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>1. Nodes data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * terminus: point of departure/point of destination (arrival) place [cities, ports]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * hub/interchange place [cities, crossroads, ports]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * staging/resupply place</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * stopping place [campsites, sarais]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * problem places [fords, passes, portage]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * tax collection places</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - Indirect taxes (portoria) imposed as a way of collecting revenue. The three Gauls formed a customs district that paid 2.5%, 'Illyricum' (i.e. all the Balkan provinces) paid 5 percent, Spain paid 2 percent), luxuries from the East were subject to a 25% tax at Leuke Kome. Individual cities (like Palmyra during the times of Hadrian) had elaborate tariffs for caravans. (Scullard 1970:342)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - Transit tolls at bridges and ferries were also collected (Scullard 1970:342)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "The Panjhir road [the main caravan route from Kabul via Anjuman Pass to Feyzabad, Afghanistan and the crossing of the Oxus][...] is the thoroughfare of Kafir highwaymen who also, being so near, take tax of it." (Newby 1974:94, quoting a 1526 memoir by the Emperor Babur." </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>2. Communication links data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * movement corridors - a general area of terrain (on land or water) used for efficient movement from one node to another</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "In some parts of Sahara the 'main' road is as much as 15 kilometers wide." (Lewis 1997:133) </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * movement tracks - a well defined narrow ribbon of space used for movement.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "Choose the easiest route. Go round obstacles, not over or through them. Zigzag to prevent over-exertion when climbing. Visibility for a man six feet tall is limited to between five and six miles [8-9.6 km - tmc] when standing on a flat plain." (Lewis 1997:143) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>3. Technology & resources data</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2># advantages offered by terrain</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * Commercial water routes were in operation as far back as the end of the 3rd millennium BCE (Grohmann 1933:101-4). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2># advantages offered by technological innovations</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * ca. 4000 BCE horses are domesticated and used for riding at Ukrainian steppes (Brown and Anthony 1997).</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * ca. 3000 BCE vehicles with disk wheels are invented, in Mesopotamia. Ox and onager are used as draft animals (International Museum of the Horse, nd). Information and objects can be carried over long distances.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * ca. 1500 BCE vehicles with spoked wheels are used, in Egypt. (International Museum of the Horse, nd). [Chariots become lighter, stronger and faster - tmc].</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * The domestication of the camel and its use in long-distance overland traveling and hauling can probably be dated to the 13th or 12th c. BCE (Albright 1940:107, 120; Walz 1954:47-50). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2># facilities</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * caravan serais and khans (Braudel 1995:63)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * bridges</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1096 near Antioch the so called "Iron Bridge [stood] where the roads from Marash and Aleppo united to cross the river [Orontes]. The bridge was heavily fortified, with two towers flanking its entrance." (Runciman 1978a:215)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o At a village valled Leuce [on a road from Nicomedia to Dorylaeum, in Asia Minor, in 1096] there was a "bridge across the Blue River, where the road leaves the Sangarius valley to climb up into the plateau." (Runciman 1978a:184)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1956 "At Tirpul the road crosses the river [Hari-Rud, Afghanistan, about sixty miles west of Herat] by a battered handsome bridge, six arches wide, built of brick." (Newby 1974:49).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Chinese Buddhist monk "Sung Yün [...] crossed the Pamirs to the Oxus in A.D. 519 and entered India by way of Kafiristan [Nuristan, NE Afghanistan] to avoid an even more dreadful crossing of the upper Indus by a bridge constructed from a single iron chain." (Newby 1974:88).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1956 in Panjshir river valley, Afghanistan "The bridge over the Khawak [a tributary stream gushing down from the Khawak Pass] consisted of two parallel tree-trunks, one higher than the other, with the gap between filled with rocks and turf." (Newby 1974:129). This bridge was used only by travellers on foot, while the pack-horses forded the stream "with their drivers perched on top of the loads." (Newby 1974:129) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * causeways</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * roads (cleared, paved, marked, patrolled)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> "[Chinese] 'Imperial Highway' that crossed into Guangdong at the Meiling Pass. I was lucky and south of Dayu found that part of the old "Imperial Highway" has been preserved. From the entrance (memorial-archway-style) gate with the words "Gu3yi4dao4" to the pass where there is a (city-wall-style) gate it is probably one and one-half mile. The pathway is of cobblestone and varies in width from ten to fifteen feet [3-4.5 m -tmc] and continues into Guangdong." (Alan Sweeten (AlanS47@aol.com), email Fri, 17 Sep 1999, h-asia@h-net.msu.edu) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * ferries</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Samyé Dukou [a ferry crosssing point, near Samyé monastery, S.Tibet] "When yak-skin coracles were still in use, holding ten people, the Tsangpo crossing took two hours or more, depending on the current. Now [1993] the river is plied by motorised, flat-bottomed boats taking twenty people seated and unmentionable number standing up. It takes forty-five to ninety minutes to get across, depending on sandbanks." (Houbein 1999:41)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1935 the Margaret & Derrick Williamson during an official diplomatic misssion to Lhasa went for a cruise down the Tsangpo. "In every coracle travelled one sheep, because on the upstream journey the boastman would carry his coracle on his back, while the sheep carried his belongings." (Houbein 1999:42, citing Williamson 1987) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * fords</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * passes</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * steps</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * wells, dams, water throughs [for animals]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "The road over the Mablaqah pass [in Yemen] from ther kingdom of Qataban was paved for five kilometers, with a small reservoir for camels and travellers at each end." (Scarre 1988:184) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * markers</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Godfrey of Lorraine's army of the 1st Crusaders in May 1096 moved from Civetot to Nicea [both near the Sea of Marmara] "cautiously, sending scouts and engineers in front, to clear and widen the track; which was then marked by a series of wooden crosses, to serve as a guide for future pilgrims." (Runciman 1978a:177) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2># obstacles</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * rivers</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * mountains</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * wetlands</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * deserts and other unpopulated areas</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * defiles</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * roadblocks and fortifications</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * mud and snow on deteriorated roads</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "The actual speed of the march would depend on the condition of the roads; deep mud or steep slopes would restrict the best marchers to a crawl." (Elting 1997:463) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>4. Users data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * movement of people: armies, pilgrims, travellers</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * movement of goods: trade, non-traded items</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * movement of information: messengers, post </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>5. Logistics data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Logistics </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>6. Speeds & endurance data</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>[average, max, extreme situations, seasonal variations, effect of numbers travelling, effect of obstacles ]</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * people on foot</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Pilgrims walking from Jaffa to Jerusalem in 1102 would cover the distance of some 62 kms in two days [= speed 31km/day tmc] (Saewulf 1892:8-9)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "By walking slowly and resting for 10 minutes every hour, a man in good physicial condition can cover between 20 and 30 kms (12 and 18 miles) per day if he has sufficient food and water." (Lewis 1997:142)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Speeds of descent [on stairs] are about one-third greater than needed for climbing." (Fruin 1971:30)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "Marching soldiers in precise military formation, each occupying about 6 square feet, van attain flows of 48 pedestrians per foot per minute for the width of the formation." (Fruin 1971:45)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Near-normal walking speed ... was found to require average area of 25 square feet per person or more." (Fruin 1971:47)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "There is no measurable effect on walking speeds due to grades up to 5 percent." (Fruin 1971:41)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Terrain grade 5-10 percent results in a decrease in walking speed by 11.5 percent; grade 10-20 percent results in a decrease in walking speed by 25 percent (Fruin 1971:41)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Dorylaeum is "22 hours' marching distance from Leuce ... some 85 miles [= 6.2 km/hr, an impossibly high speed - tmc]." (Runciman 1978a:186-187)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Crusaders in Hungary in May 1096, "The vast majority travelled on foot. Where roads were good they managed to cover twenty-five miles a day [40.2 km/day, an impossibly high speed - tmc]." (Runciman 1978a:124)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Crusaders in mountainous Epir in Jan/Feb 1096 took "some seven weeks to cover a distance of little more than a hundred miles] [approx 3.2 km/day - tmc]." (Runciman 1978a:156)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Jul-Sep 1683 during King Jan Sobieski's war against Turkey 26,000 troops (mainly cavalry units) marched in 53 days from Warsaw to Vienna (Davies 1982:481) [The two cities are 560 kms apart. Assuming an additional 25% of that distance for travel in the actual terrain, Sobieski's army covered some 700 kms in 53 days (20 Jul - 11 Sep) at an average speed of 13.2 km/day - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Spring/Summer 1704 Marlborough marched - walking in the night (3am-9am) and using pre-selected camp sites, rest days, regular 'stages' of march, the purchase of local supplies and transport - "his steadily growing army 20,000 - 40,000) [...] some 250 miles in 5 weeks." (Chandler 1996:44). [402 km in 35 days, or 11.5 km/day. Assuming 1 day of rest in every seven, and 6 hrs of march every night, the average marching speeds were 402/28*6 = 2.4 km/hr - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Summer 1704 Tallard marched his army (some 40,000) 200 miles in 36 days. (Chandler 1996:44). [322 km in 36 days, or 8.9 km/day - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Napoleon's army "keeping a regiment healthy and at a full strength during a march took skill, experience, and plain hard work. The leading company must move out at the pas ordinaire (normal rate of march) of seventy-six steps to a minute [= 76*75cm*60 mins = 3.4km/hr - tmc], hold it steadily, and avoid 'stepping long'. [...] the pas ordinaire was the standard marching speed, though some light infantry regiments habitually marched at eighty-five steps to a minute [=85*60cm*60 = 3.8 km/hr - tmc]. On good roads or hard open ground, if more speed were needed, the marching gait might be increased to the pas accelere (quick time) of one hundred steps [=100*60cm*60 = 4.5 km/hr - tmc]; for emergencies the troops might be hustled along the pas de charge (charging pace). The actual speed of the march would depend on the condition of the roads; deep mud or steep slopes would restrict the best marchers to a crawl." (Elting 1997:462-463) [These speeds might appear to be very low. However, they are attained by the heavily loaded people marching long distances for long periods of time - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o The average etape varied from 10 to 22 miles [= 16.1 to 35.4 km - tmc]; the average was approximately fifteen [= 24.1 km - tmc]. If a maneuver required 'forced' marches, the usual solution was to increase the length of the daily march, 'doubling the etapes to cover 30 to 35 miles a day [48.3 to 56.3 km/day - tmc], rather than increase the rate of march." (Elting 1997:463)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Jan 1797 Massena's division covered 54 miles in two nights and one day [36 hrs - tmc], in order to fight 3 separate battles, each a day, long [approx 86.9 km, average speed 57.9 km/day, or 2.4 km/hr - tmc] (Chandler 1993:121).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Aug 1796 "Augerau marched his division over a distance of 50 miles in 36 hrs to reach the [battle]field of Castiglione." [approx 80.4 km, average speed 53.6 km/day, or 2.2 km/hr - tmc] (Chandler 1993:148).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Napoleon "under more or less normal conditions [..] expected [his marching troops to cover only an average of between 10 and 12 miles a day." [average speed 16.1 and 19.3 km/day - tmc] (Chandler 1993:148).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Sep/Oct 1805 "During the period between September 24 and October 16 Marshal Soult's command [...] covered a total of 275 miles - no mean feat of sustained marching." [approx 442.5 km in 23 days, average speed 19.2 km/day - tmc] (Chandler 1993:148).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Dec 1805 "Davout drove the leading division of III Corps over the staggering distance of 140 kilometers in a little over than 48 hours - no less than 35 of which were spent on the road." [70 km/day, and 4 km/hr - tmc] (Chandler 1993:148).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Dec 1805 "Friant's division of Davout's III Corps [marched] from Vienna to Austerlitz in 1805: More than 70 miles in thirty-six hours without halting." [112.6 km in 36 hrs = 3.13 km/hr - tmc] (Elting 1997:463).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Iranian 'farsak' is "the distance a man travels over a flat ground in an hour - about three and half miles." (Newby 1974:126) [approx speed 5.6 km/hr - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Two un-acclimatised travellers on a road in Jul 1956 in Afghanistan, carrying 40 pounds each, covered some 10 miles in 3 hours (Newby 1974:116) [approx speed 5.3 km/hr - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Afghan butter carriers in Nuristan [NE Afghanistan] in Jul 1956 carried loads (in a hand-made backpack) about 64 pounds for 8.5 days across a rugged mountainous terrain from Pushal, via Semenek Pass to Chitral, a distance of some 150 miles [approx 240 km, average speed 28.4 km/day - tmc] (Newby 1974:200,217)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o A group of four bushwalkers walked "the full lenght of the Australian Alps walking track, which runs from the edge of the Baw Baw National Park in Victoria ... and through the Snowy region to [Tharwa, in] Canberra." They covered the exact 650 km distance in 34 days. [average speed 19.12 km/day - tmc] (The Canberra Times, p.9, Jan 20, 2001) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * people on animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o dromedary camel: 6.5 km/hr (Smits 1999)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o horse: 5.0 km/hr (Smits 1999)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Darius I the Great (r. 521-486 BCE), established (ca. 515 BCE) a network of military roads spanning the Persian Empire and a government only, courier service employing horse-riders. Along those roads, every four parsangs (every 22.44 km) there were posting houses and caravanserais at which relays of horses were kept for the governmental couriers. In the Western part of the empire a 2,475 kms (1,500 mi) long "Royal Road" linked Sardes (Sart) with Susa (Shust). At the common rate of travel that distance could be covered in 90 days (average travel speed = 27.5 kms/day). However, the relay system of imperial couriers could move a message across that distance in 7 days (average communication speed = 353.6 kms/day) (Fuller 1958:76-78, PWN 1966:771). [both couriers and horses appear to be changed at the posts]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Genghis Khan devised a system of relay messengers, who "mounted on [sturdy] ponies [...] scoured his empire [...] often covering as much as 160km/100mls in a day." (Livesey 1987:34)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "The Tatars who carried the Austrian imperial mail in the early nineteenth century took five days over the journey [from Nish in Bulgaria to Constantinople], travelling at full gallop and using relays. [The distance is over 650 miles. This means speed = over 130 miles/day or 209.2 km/day - tmc.]" (Runciman 1978a:125)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Henry de Valois, the king of Poland (for 118 days), abandoned the throne and fled the country for France (to assume the freshly vacated French throne), on 19 June 1574. He travelled from Cracow, via Pszczyna (aka Pless), into Moravia, and then to Vienna, Venice, Milan, Turin, Lyon and Paris. "On that first day, he rode 72 miles without rest." [Assuming 18 hrs of travel, the average speed (incl. the time spent on changing horses and other stopovers), was 4 miles/hr or 6.44 km/hr. Alternatively, assuming the av. speed of 5 km/hr, the travel took 116 km/5 = 23.2 hrs - tmc] (Davies 1982:419)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Normal 'amble speed' for a walking [dromedary] camel is 5kph/3mph; a working camel will typically cover 40km/25 miles a day."(ArabNet 1996)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Racing camels can reach 20kph/12mph at the gallop." (ArabNet 1996)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o bactrian camel "can travel 25-40 km per day for one month." (Cheng 1984)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o On the road in Panjshir valley in Afghanistan in July of 1956 there was "a band of Tajiks mounted on donkeys who were on their way from Jurm in Badakshan more than 150 miles to the north-east to buy teapots and tea at Gulbahar; they had been twelve days on the road and the skin around their eyes was all shrivelled by the sun." (Newby 1974: 112). [average speed 12.5 miles/day or 20.1 km/ day - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Various paces for one-humped camel: the walk (4km/hr); the jog (9.5-13 km/hr, 'this being the usual pace for a riding camel'); the fast run (14.5-19 km.hr) and the canter. Leese (1927) cited in Wilson, R.T. (1984:163)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Leese (1927) describing one-humped camels "gives the average day's travel as 65-80 km which can be maintained for a period of up to 2 weeks." Longer distances impose time penalities: 112 for each of the two days, and 144 for 1 day only. "In all cases proper rest periods for a minimum of 7 days are required before further demands are made." (Wilson, R.T.1984:163). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * beasts of burden</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o pack-horse: 4 miles/hr, working 8 hrs (Engels 1978:15)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o dromedary pack-camel: 3.6-4.4 km/hr (Smits 1999)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o dromedary caravan: 4.45 km/hr (Smits 1999)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o bactrian pack-camel 3.1-4.4 km/hr (when travelling 8 hrs day) (Cheng 1984)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o bactrian pack-camel 3.6-5 km/hr (when travelling 7 hrs day) (Cheng 1984)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "Caravans [were] travelling 20 to 35 miles a day" (Anonymous 1997). [approx speed 32-56 km/day, the latter value appearing to be impossibly high - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o A 30 camel caravan, with animals organised in trains of 5-6 animals each, would strech across a distance 2-3 miles (Blackmore 1995: 43). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * carts & draft animals</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o ca. 60 BCE Government regular postal service employing horse drawn carts, on routes between Rome and provincial capitals, is introduced by Julius Caesar (PWN 1966:771). At that time ordinary travellers averaged about 50 miles a day [5 miles/hr, assuming 10 hr day - tmc] using reda, a light four-wheeled vehicle. In cases of urgency, official couriers could cover by reda over 160 miles in 24 hours [6.7 miles/hr - tmc ] (Fuller 1965:73).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - "On the land the imperial post service covered some fifty miles [80.4 km] a day, but ordinary commercial traffic would be slower." (Scullard 1970:343)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o The average 2-oxen cart ... will move less than half as far per day [at 2 mph. working 5 hr - tmc] as a horse [at 4 mph. working 8 hr - tmc]. (Engels 1978:15).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Aug/Sep 1683, during King Jan Sobieski's war against Turkey "eight thousand wagons with food for six months [for 26,000 men - tmc] rumbled on [through Bohemia] at fifteen miles a day." (Davies 1982:481) [average speed = 24.2 km/day - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Napoleon's "preparation for a renewed invasion of Spain in 1808, Victor's corps was brought from Berlin, and Ney's from Glogau, to the Rhine in relays of hired wehicles, covering some 75 miles a day. To avoid loss of time, meals were ready for them at each halting time, and they slept as they went jolting along." [= 120.7 km/day] (Elting 1997:464)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In the mid-18th c. on a route Moscow-St. Petersburg Russian 2-horse carts travelled in summer about 50 km a day (Curtin 1984:191)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In the mid-18th c. on a route Moscow-St. Petersburg Russian [3-horse?] sledges travelled in winter about 65 km a day (Curtin 1984:191) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * boats and ships</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o boat [unspecified propulsion: rowing? sailing?]: 6.0 km/hr (Smits 1999)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Greece, Classical. - "Ships... were underrigged.., and hence slow (their best speed with a favouring wind was no more than six knots [10 km/hr]." (Casson 1984:25)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Roman, Imperial. - "Ancient ships could make between 4 and 6 knots [7.4 km - 11.1 km/hr] with a fair wind and thus log roughly 50 nautical miles [92.6 km] during a day's run." (Casson 1984:194)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Crusaders travelling in April 1096 from Brindisi, Italy "after a rough voyage of four days landed at Dyrrhachium [Epir - tmc]." (Runciman 1978a:168) []</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In 1615, a sailship "on the direct run [...] with a fair wind [could cover] the 850 sea miles [1574.2 km - tmc] to Amsterdam [...] in a week." (Davies 1982:260). [average speed 121.4 nautical miles/day, about 5 n.miles/hr; 225 km/day or 9.4 km/hr - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o In Summer 1704 Marlborough planned to move his army from Coblenz to Bedburg by barges floating down the R. Rhine at the rate of 80 miles per day [128.7 km/day tmc] (Chandler 1996:43). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>7. Time budget data</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>[time neeeded to accomplish routine tasks: time allocated for daily travel, time to strike a camp, saddle a horse etc.]</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * Emperor Alexius in 1096 in order to prevent raiding and straggling tried make sure that the arriving "Crusaders never remained more than three days at any one place." (Runciman 1978a:156)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * In Napoleon's army on the march "there was an hourly five-minute halt [...] At midday there was a grande halte of one hour during which soldiers dined on whatever they had with them. [...] Roughly once a week marching troups would be allowed a sejour (twenty-four-hour halt) to sort themselves out, repair shoes and clothing, and let straggles catch-up." (Elting 1997:462)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * In summer, travellers in Nuristan [NE Afghanistan] would start the journey in the 3rd hour in the morning and would finish their day's journey by the noon. (Newby 1974:121,125) [this suggests travel time about 9 hrs/day - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * In 1993 Blackmore's expedition of 15 people (including 6 camel handlers) and 30 camels which crossed Taklamakan desert took 2 hrs every day to load the animals (Blackmore 1995: photo 32).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> *</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> 1. When long distances have to be covered it is better to pack the camels over 5 days and give 2 days complete rest than to accomplish the objective in 7 days marching. [range 5*30 = 150kms, 5*40=200 kms - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> 2. Do not trek during the heat of the day,. make two stages, a longer one in the morning [...].</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> 3. Start as early as possible, say 0300 hours, stop for 30 minutes before sunrise to allow camels to forage but without unloading. Stop trekking in general about 2 hours after sunrise, possibly 3 hours in cool weather.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> 4. The afternoon session should be completed before sunset to allow the camels to graze, which the do better in the evening.</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> 5. Seven hours a day is generally sufficient: good baggage camels will cover 30 km in this time and the very best up to 40 km. [speeds 30/7hrs = 4.3 kms/hr, 40/7hrs = 5.7kms/hr tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> 6. Where there is an absolute necessity to cover long distances in a short time three stages will be necessary: early morning, late afternoon and night. This might total 10 hours of march and will necessitate extra grain feeding which should be given in the evening." (Wilson, R.T. 1984:151) [range 10hrs*4.3 = 43 kms, 10hrs*5.7 = 57kms - tmc] </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>8. Staging posts data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * Darius I the Great (r. 521-486 BCE), established (ca. 515 BCE) a network of military roads spanning the Persian Empire and a government only, courier service employing horse-riders. Along those roads, every four parsangs (every 22.44 km) there were posting houses and caravanserais at which relays of horses were kept for the governmental couriers. (Fuller 1958:76-78, PWN 1966:771).</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * Genghis Khan devised a system of relay messengers, who "mounted on [sturdy] ponies [...] scoured his empire [...] often covering as much as 160km/100mls in a day. Stations, sited some 40km/25mls apart, had been established on all the major roads, where the arrow messengers, bells on their saddles announcing their arrival, could collect food and change horses. [...] Genghis Khan's organization comprised more than 250,000 ponies and some 10,000 stations." [The communication network provided 25 ponies per relay station and covered some 400,000 kms of roads - tmc] (Livesey 1987:34)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * in 1805 "The 200-odd-mile [approx. 322 km - tmc] length of road between Strasbourg and Augsburg was divided into seventeen sections [i.e. approx. 12 miles or approx 19.3 kms long each -tmc], with a relay of sixty 4-horse waggons assigned to each one; that system was to continue on across Austria as the Grande Armee advanced." (Elting 1997:562)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * In Apr 1860 St. Joseph, Missouri and Sacramento, California are linked by the Pony Express. Four hundred horses, especially selected for speed and endurance were used on a 10 day (12-16 days in winter), some 2000miles/3220 kilometer route. Each rider had to cover sixty miles (100 km) in six hours, using six different ponies supplied by some 165 stations placed at about 24.3 miles (39.0 km) intervals. Riders changed to a fresh horse every 10-15 miles [this means that a rider travelled with an additional pony - tmc]. New riders took over every 75 to 100 miles. (Schietinger, Jörg and Linda Brüggemann 1998). [= average speed 322km/day; av. speed 10 miles/16.1 km/hr - tmc]</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>*</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>9. Travel times data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Travel times </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>10. Loading capacity data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Loading capacity </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>11. Navigation data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * Horse droppings can be used to confirm the course of a barely discernible mountain-trail (Newby 1974:187) </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>12. Effects of seasons data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * seasons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Greece, Classical - "Ancient maritime trade, with few exceptions, was carried on only during the summer, roughly from May to October. With the coming of fall, ships were put up for winter, quays were abandoned,and ports, like summer resorts today, went into hibernation." (Casson 1984:25)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - "Sea voyages were avoided in the winter." (Scullard 1970:343)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - "May and June were precisely the months when the first shipments of grain from Alexandria arrived at Puteoli." (Casson 1984:105)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE - "June is one of two months in which most cargoes from Egypt arrived [to Italy - tmc]." (Casson 1984:107)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Rhodes-Egypt was one of the few runs that could be made all year, even in winter." (Casson 1984:89)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Rome, 1st c. CE? - "Navigation [between Baetican province, (modern Andalusia, in S. Spain) and Puteoli (Puzzuoli, Italy), and later Ostia (Italy) ], essentially coastal navigation, took place from April to September." (Anonymous-2, n.d.). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * winds</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Mediterranean Sea - "In summer... the prevailing winds over the waters between Italy and Egypt are strong northwesterlies." (Casson 1984:15)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o Aegean Sea - Northerlies are the prevailing summer winds in the Cyclades. (Casson 1984:15,80)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Route from Egypt, or the Levant, or the south coast of Asia to Italy "because of the wind conditions in the Mediterranean, the course for Italy went south of Crete." (Casson 1984:89)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o "Over the northern half of the [Red] sea, the wind blows from the north in all seasons." (Curtin 1984:97) </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * monsoons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Monsoon rains start in Sri Lanka around 25 of May and about 15 July in the Punjab. (no Refs.).</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Chart of Prevailing Winds from the Red Sea to East Africa and India (Casson 1984:186) </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Jun-Aug Sep Oct </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Red Sea south N,NW N,NW shifting S,SE</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>of 20 degree N to variable</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Gulf of Aden S,SW,W S,SW,W variable shifting</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> to E, ENE</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>E. African coast S,SW S,SW shifting to S,SW shifting to</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>to Zanzibar NE with variables NE with variables</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> and calms and calms</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>NW coast of India SW W,SW with variables S,SW shifting to</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> and calms NE</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>SW coast of India SW W,SW shifting to light northerlies</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> W,NW </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> Nov-Dec Dec-Mar Apr May</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Red Sea south S,SE S,SE S,SE S,SE shifting </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>of 20 degree N to N,NE</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Gulf of Aden E,ENE E,ENE E,ENE E,ENE also</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> variables</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>E. African coast N,NE N,NE NE shifting NE shifting</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>to Zanzibar to S,SW to S,SW</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>NW coast of India N,NE N,NE NW to SW S,SW</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>SW coast of India N,NE N,NE NW to SW S,SW </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>--------------------------------------------------------------------------</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o snow and ice</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> + Nuristan in NE Afghanistan is accessible via "passes between 12,000 and 16,000 feet high [4-5.3 km], only negotiable on foot and closed by deep snow between October and March." (Newby 1974:85). </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o drinking water (rain and springs)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> + "The Iranian Plateau straddles the crossroads of our world, providing a continuously snow free route between Europe, the Mediterranean and Egypt, India and lands East. The summer road over the Iranian plateau leads to Transoxiana and beyond to China. The winter road crosses South Iran to the Indus. The states along this route profited from the trade, often becoming dependent on it, and their isolation was reduced." (Far 1995) [was there water shortage along the Taklimakan desert during the winter months? - tmc] </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o size of rivers (freezing, flooding)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o noxious insects</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o temperature extremes</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> + [In a desert - tmc] "The temperature my vary from as much as 55C during the day down to 10C at night; warm clothes are essential.[...] The temperature of the desert sand and rock averages 15 to 20 degrees more than that of the air." (Lewis 1997:130)</FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> + "Air temperatures of -40C and wind velocities of 30 knots are acommon in Arctic and sub-Arctic terrains. In these conditions, withouth clothes, you would be dead in about 15 minutes." (Lewis 1997:63) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> o storms, duststorms, snow-storms, avalanches</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o availability of food, fodder, fuel and shelter </FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>12. Commodities and quantities data</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * weapons</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * luxury items (gems, metals, ivory, arts &craft, perfumes, incense)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * medicinal stuff</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * raw and semi-processed materials (metal ingots, timber, wax, tar)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * salt</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * foodstuffs (grain, oil, wine, fruit)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o "Under Augustus, Egypt [i.e. Alexandria] provided Rome annually with 5,000,000 bushels [of grain], ca.135,000 tons [1 ton being here ca. 37 bushels - tmc], an enormous amount that filled fully one-third of the city needs." (Casson 1984:81) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * spices</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> o Venice ca 1500 imported from Alexandria "2,500,000 pounds of spices ... every winter. It would take just five 250-tonners [500,000 lb each - tmc] to carry the whole shipment." (Lane 1934:26 cited in Casson 1984:93) </FONT></P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> * textiles, tapestries and furs</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * pottery and glass</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * animals (horses, burden animals, circus animals)</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * slaves</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> * contraband (eg. silkworm) </FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>R</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>----------------------------------------</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Burton Choinski</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Principal Software Engineer, Quality Engineering</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>email: burton.choinski@matrixone.com</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>phone: 978-589-4089</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>fax: 978-589-5903</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>MatrixOne, Inc.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>210 Littleton Rd.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Westford, Ma 01886</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>www.matrixone.com</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>The First in Intelligent Collaborative Commerce</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>----------------------------------------</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>-----Original Message-----</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>From: Alex Koponen [<A HREF="mailto:akoponen@mosquitonet.com">mailto:akoponen@mosquitonet.com</A>]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Sent: Saturday, February 21, 2004 12:06 AM</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>To: POWERS & PERILS</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Subject: [PnP] Re: Healing Table</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> In an effort to maximize a Healer's ability to patch up people the</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Healer may choose to learn the Eroticist skill (or at least the General</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Knowledge of the healing massage aspects of the skill).</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> This grants a bonus for healing of (EL/5)+1 (RU) to StB and CB.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> To expand the prior (from Jan. 31, 2004) example:</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2> Presume a fairly normal PC, St20 and C33, giving a StB+1 and HC27%.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>The character is badly hurt and needs healing.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> A Healing spell will heal 1D6+StB+EL and courtesy of Rule 1.343 will</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>also give a bonus Healing Chance roll with whatever bonuses medicine and</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>magic have applied. A simple EL0 Healing spell in this case will heal</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>1D6+1 points and cause the bonus Healing Chance roll to be 32%. If made</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>this would be another 2-4 points healed. Total average of 5.46 points</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>healed.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> The trained healer gets to give their skill bonus (ELx2) PLUS the</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>bandage bonus PLUS the herb bonus to the HC (Healing Chance). The Healer</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>also grants a StB of EL/3 (RU) to the next HC roll. If an Eroticist gives</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>a massage this also increases the StB (and CB).</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Let us first have a Healer use the Healing skill including the bandaging</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>(+5%) and herb (+10% if using Cinquefoil) HC modifiers.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>[Other herbs may change the modifier.]</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>EL0 Healing spell plus EL1 Healer averages 6.46.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>< 4.5 + (32+2+15)% (2-4)+1 ></FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>If we add EL1 Eroticist this goes up to an average of 7.44.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>EL0 Healing spell plus EL7 Healer averages 8.16.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>If we add EL6 Eroticist this goes up to an average of 9.99.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>EL0 Healing spell plus EL13 Healer averages 10.34.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>If we add EL11 Eroticist this goes up to an average of 13.26</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Increasing the EL of the Healing spell similarly enhances the StB and</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Healing Chance.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>The extreme example of a EL13 healing skill and EL11 Eroticist healing</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>massage followed by a EL9 Healing spell should average (starting with a</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>base StB+1 and HC27%) (10-16) 13.5 direct healing and</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>(HC27+26+50=automatically makes the roll) 15 on the Healing</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>Chance healing for a total of (25-32) 28.5 points healed on average.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2> Courtesy of Rule 1.343 magical healing allows TWO HC rolls per day.</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>So for maximum healing without risking 'death by healing' one can have one</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>magical healing plus one bonus HC roll (w/o risk of infection) plus the</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>normal HC roll. Eroticist and Healing skills, bandages and herbs can add</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>to the HC% on both HC rolls. Magical bonuses apply to the bonus HC roll.</FONT>
</P>
<P><FONT SIZE=2>Hmmm...looks like my healer is going to try to learn a new skill to</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>improve her healing abilities. (Should I heal those who joke about the</FONT>
<BR><FONT SIZE=2>skill she plans to get?)</FONT>
</P>
<BR>
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